MEER ORGANIC & AGRO PORDUCTS LIMITED

About us Meer Organic & Agro Products Ltd., incepted in 2004 and is an upcoming company in this field which produces, exports and supplies Organic Vegetables, Organic Cereals, Organic Spices-Condiments and Organic Pulses. In a short span of time, we as a professional and growth oriented company have made a very good market reputation for ourselves and in fact, we are identified by the high quality of products that we produce, are certified by SGS India Pvt. Ltd. under guidelines of APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Govt. Of India. We believe in total customer satisfaction. Product range  Organic Vegetables Organic Cereals Organic Spices-condiments Organic Pulses. WHY ORGANIC? 1. It's healthy  On average, organic food contains higher levels of vitamin C and essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron and chromium as well as cancer-fighting antioxidants. 2. No additives Organic food doesn't contain food additives that can cause health problems such as heart disease, osteoporosis, migraines and hyperactivity. 3. No pesticides  Over 400 chemical pesticides are routinely used in conventional farming and residues are often present in non-organic food. Various studies done recently have confirmed high levels of pesticide residues in baby food, spinach, dried fruit, bread, apples, celery, and chips. 4. No GM Genetically modified (GM) crops and ingredients are not allowed under organic standards. Genetic modification (GM) is a new food technology. Although people are already eating it in a few products, it has only undergone one human feeding trial – and that showed negative results. In the study, commissioned by the Food Standards Agency, scientists found that GM DNA is transferring to the human gut bacteria. 5. No Drugs There is growing concern about the high use of antibiotics on farm animals and the possible effects on human health. SGS standards prohibit the routine use of antibiotics. Organic food is bursting with vitamins and minerals. We believe this is because of the way it is grown – with nature. Natural systems for fertilising the soil and keeping pests under control are used instead of relying on chemicals. We nourish the soil with all the must-have nutrients, not just those needed to make the plants grow. This gives the plants all the goodness they need so that they can give you all the goodness you need. No food has higher amounts of beneficial minerals, essential amino acids and vitamins than organic food… so buy it! 6. High Quality  Our Organic food comes from trusted Organic Practices. We are periodically inspected by SGS India Pvt. Ltd.. 7. Safer for humans, wildlife & EnvironmentNot only the Organic produce but also the Organic Production inputs/techniques are highly safer tohumans, wildlife & Environment 8. Better tasteMany people prefer organic food because they say it tastes better. A number of top chefs choose organic. Organic food is bursting with flavour. In a recent taste test carried out by the Good Housekeeping Institute, organic foods fared better than non-organic in nine out of 11 categories. Infrastructure  We have a strong infrastructure base. Our huge and well-equipped infrastructure facility ensures that we are able to provide quality organic food with timely completion of orders. We have the high encouraging environment in our company and this is the driving force behind our regular development. This enthusiastic approach has established our company as dynamic producers of Organic Vegetables, Organic-Cereals, Organic  Spices-condiments & Organic Pulses.  Key Features  Premium quality products High-tech services Authenticity Technically qualified experts Determined workforce Smooth working Sound infrastructural facilities Reasonable prices Consultancy Quality  As far as the quality of our products are concerned, Meer Organic & Agro Products Ltd., has never allowed any compromise about that. SGS India Pvt. Ltd. undertake all kinds of trial and testing measures to confirm the quality of our products under guidelines of APEDA, Ministry of Commerce, Govt. of India. To ensure that our products spell quality in all aspects of production, we have a team of experts, who supervise the entire process of production. Further, we are proud of our skilled team of professionals, whose high degree of commitment to their duties and responsibilities, speak volumes of their ability to produce superior value products. ORGANIC CLUB How to Become a Member of Organic Club? Just Give us a call or e-mail with your details such as Name, Age, Sex, Address, Contact No. & E-mail (if any) OR fill up the membership form. Membership Fee? Rs. 101/- only per year (One time Payment) Hidden Cost? None Benefits? You shall be given a Membership No. Orders of the Members will get the priority Queries related to Organic Farming & Organic Food will be answered. Members will be sent new offers, price list, information & new recipes. Free Home Delivery (Minimum Order Rs.99/-). For Non-Members, minimum order Rs.249/. Other Organic Food will also be made available on request. The members’ family will be called once in 3 months for Organic Lunch Buffet on a prior booking by paying Rs.200/- per family (Family includes 1 Husband, 1 Wife, 2 children below 10 yrs.and 1 Servant). Members will be invited twice a year to visit our farm alongwith family. A free cooked Organic Food will be served to you by the company & 10% discount on any sort of Purchases of organic food will be given. Transportation cost will be beared by family. Any number of guests will be allowed to attend the Community Lunch only by paying Rs.50/- per head. All members will be given a call (if desired), once a week for their requirements.

Wheatgrass juice is potent raw, living food.  The grass itself comes from the common wheat plant (species triticum aestivum) when it is young, vibrant and full of rich green chlorophyll.  When the grass is squeezed, a dark green liquid is expressed and this is called wheatgrass juice.

Wheatgrass is harvested for juicing when the grass reaches its nutritional peak. This is just before the jointing stage, when the plant is between 7 and 11 inches tall.  At this point, it has accumulated energy which will soon power a massive growth spurt.  It is this energy that is captured in the juice.  When wheatgrass is juiced, it is volatile and will oxidize quickly.  It is important to either rapidly consume it or immediately protect the juice from oxidation.  DynamicGreens packages and flash freezes the juice in seconds which maintains the life force without compromise.

Research History

Grasses are the foundational food for most  land based life.  Wheatgrass was identified as the finest grass food of all after a series of intensive agricultural research studies spearheaded by Dr. Charles Schnabel and assisted by Dr. George Kohler, Dr. Richard Graham, Conrad A. Elvehjem and E. B. Hart in the 1930s, 40s and 50s.  Of particular note, they performed direct comparisons of wheatgrass against other well regarded vegetables including spinach, broccoli and alfalfa.  While animals fed these foods exclusively began to waste away, those fed only wheatgrass thrived on it.  This spawned further research which showed that wheatgrass contains a broad spectrum of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, amino acids, essential fatty acids and enzymes.  In addition, their research also identified benefits that could not be associated with any of these known nutrients.  The expression "grass juice factor" was termed to descibe beneficial powers in grasses that were distinct.

Juicing Origins

Juicing wheatgrass was started in the 1950's by Ann Wigmore independent of the agricultural research above.  Her story is fascinating (check out "Wheatgrass Nature's Finest Medicine" by Steve Meyerowitz).  The essence is that she was a Boston resident of Lithuanian descent who suffered from a variety of ailments in her early life.  Drawing on her peasant background and the experiences of her grandmother (a self taught naturalist), she healed herself with wild weeds, herbs and greens.  She consumed many different types of greens and also fed the same to her animals.  Her observations led her to conclude that wheatgrass was the best source of greens.  One day, at a local yard sale, she picked up an old cast iron meat grinder.  With a few modifications, the first wheatgrass juicer was born.  Ann Wigmore later formed the Hippocrates Health Institute in Boston and worked with thousands of people over the years.  Visitors to the institute were thrilled with their results and many of the health retreats across the country were formed by former Hippocrates clients.

We Embrace And Enhance

Dr. Charles Schnabel went further than just identifying wheatgrass as potent, he determined how to grow it and when to harvest it.  He stressed the need for organic farming, soil enrichment and proper timing to produce optimal wheatgrass.  Our farming techniques use all of Dr. Schnabel's strategies while also incorporating new methods enabled by todays better engineered equipment.  Ann Wigmore brought us juicing which breaks down the indigestible cellulose and gives us a powerful way to tap into the benefits of wheatgrass.  We incorporate Ann Wigmore's juicing approach and are very careful to maintain the integrity of the juice through flash freezing.  The result is that DynamicGreens brings the work of these two innovators together superbly and the juice quality is literally greater than the sum of its parts.

THE BENEFITS OF WHEATGRASS JUICE

Wheatgrass juice is extremely bioavailable. This occurs because wheatgrass requires 50 times more pressure to juice than other fruits and vegetables. This force pulverizes the cellular structures and expresses out miniscule nutritional elements.  The benefit of these tiny nutritional elements is that they are easy for the body to assimilate.

When you drink high quality wheatgrass juice, your body may produce spectacular results such as:

• A physical and mental sense of well-being
• More energy and better sleep
• Stronger immune system
• Detoxification on a cellular level
• Reduced inflammation in the entire body
• Lessened appetite cravings
• Increased mental clarity
• Steadier nerves
• Improved eyesight and night vision
• You suddenly start accomplishing more every day
• Actively engaging in and enjoying activities you had been dreading in the past
• Visually seeing results via live blood cell analysis such as the unclumping of oxygen-carrying red blood cells
• and much more...

Our wheatgrass juice is potent because it is raw and living.  Many of the products available to us today have been denatured through drying, oxidation, irradiation, pasteurization, bottling, canning, etc.  Be careful to avoid products that show the right ingredients but have a format that has traded the living energy of the food for shelf life.

Why Is Wheatgrass Juice So Good For You?

Our history with wheatgrass juice dates back into the 1970's.  As part of a group of early adopters, we were attending sprouting user groups and travelling across North America learning and sharing information.  We can say with absolute certainty that the juice can do incredible things for people and also say with absolute certainty that we do not know why.  Over the years, wheatgrass juice has developed a large following of people who have seen and experienced the benefits.  Exciting results and genuine enthusiasm have created a number of bold statements about why wheatgrass juice is so good; including:

• 1 fl. oz. of wheatgrass juice is equivalent to 2½ pounds of the choicest vegetables
• wheatgrass is mineral rich and contains 92 minerals needed by the body
• it is a complete protein containing 20+ amino acids and has higher protein densities than any other food source
• the magic is in the enzymes with more than 30 found in the juice
• the juice is 70% chlorophyll and since the chlorophyll molecule is virtually identical to hemoglobin (red blood cells that carry oxygen), wheatgrass juice will oxygenate your body
• an as of yet unidentified, tiny molecule is responsible for the positive effects

For the most part, these statements have been hypotheses not facts.  Further developments have shown some of them to be partially or even entirely inaccurate.  Although the explanations have not always stood up to rigorous scrutiny, the good intentions of the people, their experiences, and the benefits derived from the use of wheatgrass juice have never been in question.  Although we do not understand the mechanics, you have got to get this juice, should certainly have high expectations and are advised to just be your own best observer as your body will know what to do with it.

The Reasons That Resonate With Us

There is a much discussion today about good health and body chemistry.  This has spawned a broad movement toward achieving balanced pH.  For most, this means consuming more foods that produce alkalizing effects and less foods that create acidifying effects.  The rationale dates back to work done byDr. Otto Heinrich Warburg who in 1931 was awarded the Nobel prize in Physiology / Medicine.   Dr. Warburg looked at a complex relationship between acidic body chemistry, toxicity (caused by fermenting sugars), low oxygen states and corresponding sub-optimal performance of the body.

When pH Balanced » The Body Performs Optimally

Since most of us develop an acidic body chemistry over time, we need alkalizing foods to restore pH balance.  Wheatgrass juice is a powerful alkalizer.  It is also a preferred food because it seems to possess the ability to single-handedly change people's body chemistry when used in sufficient amounts.  As a result, it is exactly the kind of food needed to help jump start the processes of the body.  It is also the perfect food to consume when life's challenges (like travelling for work) get in the way of the lifestyle choices you prefer.  For many, consuming wheatgrass juice is like have a license to exist in the world around us.

It is important to note that we don't want our bodies to be either alkaline or acidic; rather, we are trying to achieve balance.  We love our wheatgrass juice; but don't think it appropriate to live on it alone.  You can help your body build a solid long term foundation by using some wheatgrass juice and making great choices at the grocery store.  Learn more about the acid / alkaline balance and see specific food lists here.
 

POTENCY:  WHY FLASH FROZEN JUICE IS BETTER THAN FRESH

Flash frozen juice is far more potent than wheatgrass juiced "fresh" and the key reason for this is the quality of the plant.  Most wheatgrass is grown in the controlled environment of greenhouses; however, wheatgrass needs to be grown outdoors in order to reach its full potential.  Field growing dramatically enhances nutrition because the plant releases phytonutrients in response to changing environmental conditions and the benefits of natural air, rain, sun and soil create a level of purity that are obvious the moment you taste the juice.  The key advantages of outdoor grown wheatgrass vs indoor / greenhouse grown wheatgrass are:

Superior nutrition

• 6 x deeper root system
• 10 x longer growth cycle
• 50% higher chlorophyll levels
• Zero simple sugars (in the outdoor plant, they convert to complex carbohydrates)
• Higher phytonutrient levels

Optimal raw and living format

• Flash freezing is key to capturing the raw and living power of wheatgrass juice
• It allows us to harvest the best possible plant (field grown) at the optimal moment (nutritional peak)
• Nutrition is fully maintained by flash freezing and the USDA confirms the retention of freshness, quality, nutrients, enzyme activity, etc. here
• Other formats cannot provide the same nutritional power specifically:
  • the tray grown plant juiced on the spot does not contain the same nutrient content
  • powders and tablets are normally heat treated which destroys the sensitive organics
  • cut wheatgrass will degrade quickly (for example, picked spinach loses 76% of its vitamin C in 48 hours)
  • refrigerated juice does not work as the juice is too volatile and starts spoiling immediately or the organics must be deactivate (killed) through pasteurization (heat treatment) or cold pasteurization (irradiation)

No detectable molds

• Field grown wheatgrass never has the mold issues commonly found in tray grown grasses (more here)
• This means far better taste
• It also ensures excellent tolerability as many people are allergic to the molds

Superior food safety

• Freezing keeps food safe because it stops the biological clock, virtually elmininating the movement of molecules
• This keeps nutrient levels intact and prevents the growth of microorganisms that cause food spoilage and foodborne illness.

There is never a good time to choose powders, tablets or refrigerated wheatgrass juice.  However, it is important to note that tray grown wheatgrass does contain the power to change health outcomes.  The difference is that drinking our field grown wheatgrass juice is like taking 3 steps forward in your pursuit of great health.  In comparison, using tray grown wheatgrass juice is like taking 2 steps forward and then 1 step back due to the molds.  You can't take the health benefits as far because the plant is inferior and molds also limit the intake possibilities.  In addition, tolerability issues caused by the molds make it impossible for many to drink the juice at all. 

Incidentally, greenhouse growers concur that they have molds, they just say that they are non-pathogenic (read more here) and that ingestion won't harm you.  DynamicGreens sees no reason why anyone should ingest wheatgrass juice that may be contaminated with mold and it should never be consumed by pregnant women, nursing mothers and non-verbal children.  On the other hand, DynamicGreens wheatgrass juice is always a clean, pure source of juice and can be consumed with total confidence as discussed in our Wheatgrass Juice Usage Protocol.
 

THE IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION

Our bodies orchestrate endless biochemical reactions that create and maintain life.  Some are called enzymatic processes and they are characterized by changing a molecule from one substance into another.  This is how the body converts the foods we eat into into things like bone, ligaments, finger nails, hair and tissue.  You can read more about this at Wikipedia. 

Each process requires a precise combination of nutrients to function properly. When a vital component is missing, a process will either be abandoned, require excessive amounts of energy to complete, or simply become dysfunctional.  When all components are present, the processes occur much faster and consume a fraction of the energy of un-catalyzed reactions.

Click on the specific nutritional categories below to learn more about the sophisticated relationship between various nutritional elements:

NAVIGATING THE COMPROMISED FOOD CHAIN

DynamicGreens wheatgrass juice stands out as a powerful food in part because it contains all of the nutrition, living organics and non-organics that mother nature imparted to it.  Yes, our wheatgrass juice is a complete food and convenient to use; however, its most importart quality is that it is completely uncompromised and this differs from almost any other food available.

Generally, we classify food as being in one of two categories.  Either it is good for you, or it is bad for you.  The vast majority of people have an excellent sense of the difference, understand that you are what you eat and make choices accordingly.  Sometimes these are good choices, sometimes bad choices, but our belief is that we understand the differences which makes them informed choices...however, things are not always what they appear.  Many foods that have the appearance of being healthy, simply are not.  

organic food

The Advantages of Organic Food

You Are What You Eat

Do you really know what goes into your food?  Discover the advantages of organic food on this site and see exactly what producers have beenadding to your fruit and vegetables to make it less healthy than a few years ago.

In the rush to produce more and more crops to satisfy growing demand producers have had to resort to using a lethal cocktail of pesticides to control disease and insect attack. 

Good news for their bank balances perhaps but not good news for your health, this is why you need to be informed of the advantages of organic food.

Did you know that if you consumed an average apple you would be eating over 30 pesticides, even after you have washed it? 

The quality of food has definitely gone down since the second world war.  For instance, the levels of vitamin C in today's fruit bear no resemblance to the levels found in wartime fruit.

Organic food is known to contain 50% more nutrients, minerals and vitamins than produce that has been intensively farmed. Read moreabout this here.

You will have to eat more fruit nowadays to make up the deficiency, but unfortunately that means eating more chemicals, more detrimental affects on your health eating something that should be good for you!

Also don't forget about the cocktail of anti-biotics and hormones that cattle and poultry are force fed. 

What happens to those chemicals when the animal dies? 

Digested and stored in human bodies is the answer, have you seen pictures of animals in severly cramped conditions in battery farms? 

It just does not make sense to state that any animal kept in these conditions is healthy and produces high quality food.

If you are as worried as I am about the health of your family then you need to read the articles on this and seriously consider converting your family to the organic lifestyle with the organic food information you are going to learn on this site.

Trust me, once you try some organic produce and taste an apple the way it should be, and perhaps how you recall it tasting in your youth, you will never go back to mass produced fruit again.

Sure there are issues with availability and cost but with a bit of research you should be able to find local stores who stock organic produce. 

Also, don't forget about your local farmer, I'm sure you will be able to find one that has seen the light and opened up a farm shop to supply local residents. 

You should be able to get some very keen prices from these shops, why not take a look around and see who is offering produce in your area?

Some more startling facts now.  Pesticides in food have been linked to many diseases including:

Cancer
Obesity
Altzheimer's
Some birth defects

Not a nice list is it?  There are probably others but if you think about it, how can it be okay for you to eat chemicals and not expect some form of reaction in your body.  Our bodies are delicately balanced wonderful machines.  Any form of foreign chemical is bound to cause irritation at the least.

Please take advantage of the organic food articles and informationon this site and do consider taking a closer look at what you are eating.  It's for your health after all!

tomato

Tomato history

French botanist Tournefort provided the Latin botanical name,Lycopersicon esculentum, to the tomato. It translates to"wolfpeach" -- peach because it was round and luscious and wolf because it was erroneously considered poisonous. The botanist mistakenly took the tomato for the wolfpeach referred to by Galen in his third century writings, ie., poison in a palatable package which was used to destroy wolves.

The English word tomato comes from the Spanishtomatl, first appearing in print in 1595. A member of the deadly nightshade family, tomatoes were erroneously thought to be poisonous (although the leaves are poisonous) by Europeans who were suspicious of their bright, shiny fruit. Native versions were small, like cherry tomatoes, and most likely yellow rather than red.

The tomato is native to western South America and Central America. In 1519, Cortez discovered tomatoes growing in Montezuma's gardens and brought seeds back to Europe where they were planted as ornamental curiosities, but not eaten.

Most likely the first variety to reach Europe was yellow in color, since in Spain and Italy they were known as pomi d'oro, meaning yellow apples. Italy was the first to embrace and cultivate the tomato outside South America.

The French referred to the tomato as pommes d'amour, or love apples, as they thought them to have stimulating aphrodisiacal properties.

In 1897, soup mogul Joseph Campbell came out with condensed tomato soup, a move that set the company on the road to wealth as well as further endearing the tomato to the general public.

Campbell may have made tomato soup popular, but the first recipe is credited to Maria Parloa whose 1872 book The Appledore Cook Book describes her tomato chowder.

The high acidic content of the tomato makes it a prime candidate for canning, which is one of the main reasons the tomato was canned more than any other fruit or vegetable by the end of the nineteenth century. 

by Arundhati Mitra

Find out why it is healthier to turn to natural food before it is too late

SPROUTING THOUGHTS

Sprouts probably contain the largest amount of nutrients per unit of any food known. Enzymes that initiate and control most chemical reactions in our body are activated in the sprouting process.
More >>

---

See, I have given thee every herb that yields seed which is on the face of the earth. And every tree whose fruit yields seeds, to you it shall be for food!
— Genesis 1:29

A huge golden-brown roasted steak, dripping with butter. Surrounded by finger chips and garnished by a sprig of basil and creamy mayonnaise. The aroma of exotic herbs. Your taste buds tingle. You almost feel the steak melting in your mouth. Yummy, isn't it? But wait! What about the cholesterol you are inviting into your system?

If you are health-conscious and have sufficient will-power, you may push away this delicious picture and go for something more banal, like a boiled salad. But is that really as healthy as it seems?The new mantra doing the rounds is that any-repeat, any-cooked food is avoidable. "In cooked food," says Jehangir Palkhivala, an Indian yoga therapist, "life forces are taken away from the food. Raw food can be consumed easily without exerting pressure on our organs."

And this is only for starters.

Nutrition science is fast gaining the reputation of being a healing and preventive device. Dr Nand Kishore Sharma, a naturopath in New Delhi, India, feels that most diseases are caused by bad food habits. "Unnatural food, which includes any form of food not found in nature, generates toxins that gradually poison the body," he says. From his 'Fireless Kitchen', Dr Sharma gives patients regenerative or natural food for degenerative diseases. This, he claims, has cured many. "I have even seen people grow new teeth and hair at 60 and 70 years of age," he says.

Urvashi Rawal is a case in point. A homeopath from Mumbai, India, she suddenly lost her voice in 1988. Doctors could not help her beyond diagnosing that she had developed some nodes on her vocal chords. During this time she met Rishi Prabhakar, who introduced her to his Siddha Samadhi Yoga(SSY) and put her on a complete raw food diet. "I suffered from severe diarrhea for the first few days. In the process, natural food flushed out all the toxins from my body," Rawal (now Ma Urvashi) recalls. Within six months, she regained her voice. Today, she is a senior SSY instructor.

Raw food is usually defined as that which is not cooked, applied to fire or fragmented. Uday Chotai, a naturohygienist from Mumbai, adds: "According to naturopathy, there are two types of food—suncooked and uncooked. Fruits that ripen in the sun fall into the category of suncooked food. Uncooked or raw food have not ripened at all." But both types have high pranic value and meet every requirement of the body.

In their book Prakritik Vyanjan, Dr Nand Kishore and Savita Sharma affirm that nature is a most effective resource manager. During summer, we get juicy fruits and vegetables such as watermelon, muskmelon, mint and cucumber, which have a cooling effect. In winters, there are dry fruits and dates. The authors discourage having non-seasonal fruits and vegetables since they have low nutrition value. Moreover, the nutrients that the body gets . from seasonal fruits and vegetables are assimilated and kept in store for coming seasons. Any minor requirements can be compensated through available seasonal fruits and vegetables.

However, despite such a foolproof natural system, man tends to experiment with nature-often with adverse results. We eat peeled fruits and vegetables because they taste better and are easier to chew. But in doing so, we rid them of their vitamins, minerals and fiber. Chewing has its own advantages: the more we chew, the better does the food mix with digestive juices in our mouth. This reduces strain on the stomach.

Dr Victor G. Rocine, a Norwegian homeopath, advises eating food "the way God manufactured it". According to him, we must preserve the organic chemical salts in food because once we remove them, we are likely to alter other chemicals as well. Dr Rocine also discourages adding artificial ingredients to food, especially if their natural forms are available. He cites the example of common salt. Table salt, according to him, is an inorganic substance and hence not of much value for us organic beings. Dr Rocine suggests taking sodium from organic substances such as spinach, strawberries and carrots. Foods rich in sodium are often rich in chlorine and oxygen also.

Dr Sharma agrees: "Man needs perhaps one per cent salt. This he can easily get from fruits and vegetables." Going a step further, A.P. Dewan, in his book Food for Health, says too much salt increases the body's alkalinity. This can result in cancer. The notion that cooking destroys food has many supporters. "Natural foods," points out Ma Urvashi, "contain sun energy in the cellulose. This is destroyed when exposed to high temperatures while cooking." When ingested, the cooked food is first broken down to its natural form and then digested. "We can save our body a lot of energy if we take natural food in the first instance," she argues.

Dr S.N. Pandey, a Delhi-based naturopath, feels that the mysteries of nature cannot be duplicated artificially. "Nature's products exist in holistic forms. Their effects are also holistic," he says. "This is destroyed while cooking. Citric acid, for example, can never do for the human body what lime can." One important substance that is destroyed by any form of heating are enzymes. They work as catalysts during all chemical changes in the body, especially during digestion. They die at temperatures, above 55ºC. After that no food can be absorbed by the body. Enzymes become inactive even at low temperatures, but can be revived. Though our body produces enzymes, the best source is fresh food, rich in natural enzymes. All raw food advocates underscore the necessity of properly washing fruits and vegetables. This is because of the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. "Have you ever seen cows and goats washing their greens before eating?" asks Dr Sharma. "Organic soil has a lot of nutrients. Though humans can't consume it directly, a little amount is harmless. But chemicals contaminate everything."

Thankfully, organic fertilisers and pesticides will soon come into the market. In fact, Ma Urvashi cites the case of Dr C.K. Patel, former professor of Vallabh Vidya Nagar, in the western Indian state of Gujarat, who is already exporting neem pesticides prepared by him. Another point that qualifies raw food is freshness. Says Dr Swati Sawant, naturopath: "Raw juices clean our system. But if we allow them to rest a long time, they get oxidised and are of no use." There is an interesting theory behind this. During his studies, Dr Rocine observed that the moment a fruit is plucked from a tree, its lifeprinciple begins to go back to the atmosphere, leaving the fruit nutritionally dead. This is especially true of chlorophyll, an important component in the production of red blood cells. As these components spoil quickly, the food is preserved by removing them-in the process eliminating the most nutritive parts.Nutritionists are also questioning many age-old beliefs. Take milk. Considered by many a complete food, it is increasingly being labelled unhealthy-even in its raw form. "Do you know of any animal other than man that consumes milk of another species?" asks Dr Sharma. "The milk of cows or buffaloes is suited for their calves, not us."

A lot of non-vegetarian food is also eaten raw. The Japanese, for one, eat raw seafood. In fact, sushi, a Japanese raw fish preparation, is a gourmet's delight. Adds Parvinder Multani, executive chef of Oberoi Maidens: "Appetisers like caviar, stallion salamis and oysters are considered delicacies. These are all eaten raw." He points out that the French make steak tartare with minced beef or horse meat, served raw with egg yolks and seasonings. In Africa, many beef dishes are eaten raw.

In the ultimate analysis, however, it is unrealistic and undesirable to hastily do away with certain habits, no matter what the advantages. Pointing out various psychological factors, most natural food champions state that the food we eat should suit our mental and emotional temperament. Otherwise its physiological benefits will be nullified. As Kavita Mukhi of Nature Options says: "We should eat a balanced diet by combining natural and cooked food." So if you don't like raw food or can't get adjusted to it, take your time to develop the palate. There's really no hurry. After all, we all know what happened to the proverbial hare.

oatmeal

Top 10 Reasons To Eat Oatmeal
By Mr Breakfast

Bonus List: 10 Ways To Make Instant Oatmeal
Instantly More Exciting

In my capacity as the self-pronounced #1 leading authority on breakfast in the whole entire world, it's very important to me to impart certain breakfast knowledge to my readers. I want you to be able to make perfect scrambled eggs. I want you to know what they eat for breakfast in Iraq. I need you to know which death row inmates choose breakfast for their last meal. But of all the lessons I could teach, one stands supreme... if you eat more oatmeal you can drastically improve the quality of your life.

Hopefully you've already discovered how delicious oatmeal can be by exploring the Mr Breakfast Oatmeal Collection. Now see the benefits you can derive from eating a delicious bowl of oatmeal.

1. Over 40 studies show that eating oatmeal may help lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of heart disease. According to Quaker, all it takes is 3/4 cup of oatmeal each day to help lower cholesterol. The soluble fiber in oats helps remove LDL or "bad" cholesterol, while maintaining the good cholesterol that your body needs. In January 1997, the Food and Drug Administration announced that oatmeal could carry a label claiming it may reduce the risk of heart disease when combined with a low-fat diet.
   
2. The soluble fiber in oatmeal absorbs a considerable amount of water which significantly slows down your digestive process. This result is that you'll feel full longer, i.e. oatmeal can help you control your weight.
   
3. You probably already have oats in your kitchen. It's estimated that eighty percent of U.S. households currently have oats in their cupboards.
   
4. New research suggests that eating oatmeal may reduce the risk for type 2 diabetes. In fact, the American Diabetes Association already recommends that people with diabetes eat grains like oats. The soluble fiber in these foods help to control blood glucose levels.
   
5. With the exception of certain flavored varieties, the oats found in your grocery store are 100% natural. If you look at the ingredients on a canister of rolled oats, you will usually see only one ingredient... rolled oats.
   
6. According to recent studies, a diet that includes oatmeal may help reduce high blood pressure. The reduction is linked to the increase in soluble fiber provided by oatmeal. Oats contain more soluble fiber than whole wheat, rice or corn.
   
7. Oatmeal contains a wide array of vitamins, minerals and antioxidantsand is a good source of protein, complex carbohydrates and iron.
   
8. The fiber and other nutrients found in oatmeal may actually reduce the risk for certain cancers.
   
9. Oatmeal is quick and convenient. Every type of oatmeal can be prepared in a microwave oven. Even when cooked on the stovetop, both old-fashioned and quick oats can usually be made in less than 10 minutes. And what about instant oatmeal… a hot breakfast in under a minute... incredible!
   
10. Oatmeal can be absolutely delicious! Whether instant, cooked on the stove or baked in the oven, the combination of flavors you can fit into a serving of oatmeal is limited only by the imagination. Visit Mr Breakfast's Oatmeal Collection to see just 60 of the ways you can start to enjoy oatmeal today!

Spread the word about the goodness of oatmeal! Wear a limited edition t-shirtthat lists the reasons to eat oatmeal!



Bonus List...

10 WAYS TO MAKE INSTANT OATMEAL INSTANTLY MORE EXCITING

1. Add fresh or frozen fruit. Sliced bananas are particularly good. A little fistful of frozen blueberries not only add flavor to instant oatmeal, but your mouth will marvel over the inviting temperature / texture differential when you bite into each little berry.
   
2. Add dried fruit such as raisins, dried cranberries, dried cherries, dates or sweetened shredded coconut.
   
3. Add chopped nuts like walnuts or almonds. Finely chopped nuts can create a tasty crumbled topping.
   
4. Add a tablespoon or two of your favorite granola. Mushy boring oatmeal is yesterday's business. Today you can easily add a delightful crunch to any bowl of oatmeal.
   
5. Add a dribble of pure delicious maple syrup.
   
6. Sprinkle with cinnamon and sugar. Never be afraid of more flavor.
   
7. Add a little dollop of yogurt. Flavored yogurts add taste and all yogurts add a smooth creamy texture.
   
8. Crush a little handful of your favorite dry breakfast cereal onto your oatmeal. Cap'n Crunch oatmeal anyone?
   
9. Stir in a couple teaspoons of your jam or fruit preserves and turn your oatmeal into a fruity fiesta bowl.
   
10. Add a single tablespoon of ice cream to your oatmeal. Your mouth will go crazy with pleasure as the cool ice cream mingles with the warm oats.

Honorable mention goes to these oatmeal additions, most of which should only be enjoyed by really skinny people: whipped cream, chocolate chips, mini-marshmallows, butter and brown sugar, crumbled candy bars (seriously) andeggnog.

Try combining the ideas above to make a breakfast you'll be proud to call (You're Name Here)'s Deluxe Oatmeal Supreme.

Doctors, nutritionists and fitness experts agree: The key to staying strong and energized is good nutrition, and the best way to get your nutrients is from food. Some of the most accessible and absorbable nutrients and antioxidants come from fruits and vegetables, and experts recommend you get 5-9 servings of them daily to keep you fit and energized.
But for most of us, 5-9 servings are pretty difficult to get. Who has the time? Some people don't even like fruits and vegetables or don't have access to quality fruits and vegetables that are appealing enough to eat 5-9 times per day.
The good news is that there are ways to get the nutritional benefits of fruits and vegetables without having to actually eat 5-9 servings per day. The solution? Four amazing super foods: Spirulina, Chlorella, Wheatgrass and Barley Grass. These amazing foods actually contain exponentially higher levels of vitamins, minerals, enzymes and amino acids than most fruits and vegetables, and because the nutrients come from a food, they are most easily recognized and absorbed in the body.
What Makes Green Foods Such Potent Energy Boosters?
One of the keys to staying energetic is to maintain the proper pH balance in the body. Many of the foods we eat, such as meat and pasta, are acid-forming foods. Acid causes the body to store fat. As long as the body is excessively acidic, it will be very difficult to lose the fat. It also slows the body down and prevents the cells from absorbing nutrients and oxygen. This can slow you down and make you feel tired.
Green foods are packed with nutrients that alkalize the body and neutralize the acid, getting the body into proper pH balance. This clears the way for nutrients and oxygen to enter the cells and boost your energy.
Green Energy Booster #1: Wheatgrass
Wheatgrass refers to the young grass of the common wheat plant that is freshly juiced or dried into a powder. It is the ultimate jump-start, feel-good, alkalizing fuel. Wheatgrass has roughly 20 times the nutrient content of fruits and vegetables. It's a "rainbow food", meaning it contains everything you need to live. You could live on wheatgrass. Wheatgrass contains chlorophyll, which is the green lifeblood of plants.
Even if you are allergic to wheat, many wheat grass products are free of gluten-the common allergen in wheat.
Green Energy Booster #2: Barley Grass
Like wheatgrass, it is one of the highest alkaline foods there is. Barley Grass is packed with vitamins, minerals enzymes and amino acids that help build stamina, heal injuries and boost energy. It is an excellent source of protein and contains 11 times as much calcium and 30 times as much vitamin B-1 as milk, four times the iron in spinach, six times the vitamin C in an orange, and eighty milligrams of vitamin B12 per hundred grams!
Green Energy Booster #3: Spirulina
Spirulina is a blue-green algae that grows in both sea and fresh water. Like Wheatgrass and Barley Grass, Spirulina neutralizes acidity. The enzymes in Spirulina improve digestion and recharge your energy at the cellular level. Spirulina contains high levels of energy-boosting Vitamin B-12. It has 2300% more iron than spinach and 3900% more beta carotene than carrots! The iron in Spirulina is highly absorbable so your body can use it right away.
Green Energy Booster #4: Chlorella
Chlorella is the world's richest source of chlorophyll. It contains more energy-boosting Vitamin B-12 than liver and very high levels of beta carotene. One study even concluded that it helps reduce anemia in pregnant women. In this study, a group of 70 women with anemia and pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH) were given either 6 grams/daily of Chlorella or a placebo from the 12th week of gestation until delivery. Those receiving the Chlorella supplements demonstrated improvements in anemia in their second and third trimesters - as measured by hemoglobin levels.
The Best News: They're Very Easy to Ingest!
These green super foods are available in flavored drinks and ready-made fruit smoothies. They are also available by themselves or in combination in tablets or powders that are delicious in milkshakes or fruit smoothies! So no more excuses-get maximum nutritional energy every day, starting today!
About the Institute for Vibrant Living®
A leader in the dietary supplement industry, the Institute for Vibrant Living is committed to providing customers with evidence based nutritional supplements. Their unique product line reflects a belief that anyone can achieve lifelong health. All products and formulations are based on extensive research, client trials and case studies. All products are 100% guaranteed.
To learn more about the Institute for Vibrant Living® please visit their website at www.ivlproducts.com.
This information is meant to be used to educate the reader and is not intended to provide individual medical advice. Before you take any supplement, please consult your physician or other licensed healthcare professional to determine if it's appropriate for you. This information is brought to you by the Institute for Vibrant Living®.
These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. These products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.


Read more: http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2011/03/15/prweb8204720.DTL#ixzz1Iw5QF7OX

Scarcity of freshwater is affecting the productivity and profitability of sugarcane growers and millers in India.

As many as 35 million farmers in this country grow sugarcane and rely on it for their livelihoods. Another 50 million depend on employment generated by the 571 sugar factories and other related industries using sugar. In Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu, sugarcane plays a major role in the state economy.

During the last 10 years, sugarcane production in India has fluctuated between 233 million tonnes and 355 million tonnes per year. Similarly, the productivity at the farm level is as low as 40 tonnes/ha. With such low yields and fluctuations in production, and predicted increases in the variability of rainfall due to climate change, the industry is in for big trouble.

One of the world's thirstiest crops, approximately 25,000 kg of water is needed to produce 100 kg of sugarcane. Unless sugarcane farmers are introduced to new methods for producing higher yields using much less water, the country will find it difficult to meet the growing demand for sugar.

The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) aims to:

• provide practical options to farmers for improving the productivity of land, water, and labour
• reduce crop duration, providing factories a longer crushing season and increased employment opportunities for workers
• reduce the overall pressure on water resources and ecosystems.

The SSI is a package of practices based on the principles of ‘more with less’ in agriculture. It stresses a practical approach that originates from farmers and civil society to improve productivity while reducing pressures on natural resources.

It's estimated that by adopting SSI, a farmer will be able to produce at least 20% more sugarcane while reducing water inputs by 30% and chemical inputs by 25%.

Agricultivation

Worldwide, India stands first in rice area and second in rice production, after China. It contributes 21.5 percent of global rice production. Within the country, rice occupies one-quarter of the total cropped area, contributes about 40 to 43 percent of total foodgrain production and continues to play a vital role in the national food and livelihood security system. However, India did not become a major rice exporting country for a long time. Its share in world rice trade, mainly in the form of small-volume exports of highly prized basmati rice, was insignificant (5 percent). It was not until the mid-1980s that the quantum of export started to grow, from 110 000 tonnes in 1978/79 to 890 613 tonnes in 1994/95 and to a record 5.5 million tonnes in 1995/96, second only to Thailand (at 5.9 million tonnes).

Among the exporting countries, Thailand, Vietnam, India and Pakistan are the major countries exporting rice in sizeable quantity.

Rice is one of the important cereal food crop of India. Rice contributes about 43% of total food grain production and 46% of total cereal production in the country. It continues to play vital role in the national exports. The percentage share of rice in total national export was 4.5% during 1998-99. The percentage share of agriculture export in total national export was 18.25, whereas the percentage share of rice export in total agriculture export was 24.62 during 1998-99. Thus, rice export contributes nearly 25% of total agriculture export from the country.

Agricultivation

PADDY CULTIVATION

1 Introduction

The present note describes, at an introductory level, some water resources implications of paddy

cultivation, in a Southeast Asian context.

The note draws heavily on Harry Nesbitt (July 2003): Water used for agriculture in the Lower

Mekong Basin, report prepared for Mekong River Commission, Basin Development Plan.

Another example of an important publication is L. C. Guerra, S. I. Bhuiyan, T. P. Tuong, and R.

Barker (1998): Producing more rice with less water from irrigated systems, SWIM paper 5,

IWMI, Colombo.

For further reading, reference is made to the Internet.

Please note that (in most cases), numbers in this note are examples only. Many numbers - be it crop water

requirement, yield, percolation, return flow or whatever - are highly site-specific, and would be different from one

place, one year and one cultivation technique to another place, another year, and another cultivation technique.

2

2 Basics

It is no coincidence that paddy cultivation is the main traditional livelihood in Southeast Asia.

Rice is a unique crop in many ways, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Valuable properties of rice 8

Traditional Southeast-Asian cultivation systems comprise:

• Upland (or aerobic) rice, grown in dry fields;

• lowland (wet) (rainfed or irrigated) rice, grown in fields that are inundated for the major

part of the cultivation period. Lowland rice can be transplanted or direct seeded; and

• deepwater/floating rice, growing in water depths between 0.5 m and 4-5 m.

Among these, lowland rice is by far the most important in terms of production and occupation.

Table 2: Transplanted rice 9

Lowland rice does not grow well in stagnant water. Either, a slow flow must be maintained, or

the field must be drained and re-flooded at intervals. This generates a return flow of excess

water, of the same magnitude as the crop water requirement.

8 H Nesbitt (July 2003) and MRC-BDP (Nov 2002)

9 After H Nesbitt (July 2003)

• Rice is the traditional stable food in Southeast Asia, and can assure food security (at the family level, as

well as at the national level)

• Agriculture, and mainly paddy cultivation and related occupations, provides the livelihood for some 75

percent of the people living in the Lower Mekong Basin

• Rice can grow on soil types that are not well suited for other crops

• Rice can grow in areas that are waterlogged or inundated

• Rice can be stored for years

• The commercial demand of rice is relatively stable (but prices are low)

• Rice is relatively robust towards pests, and lowland rice is very robust towards weeds

• One crop of rice can be raised in 3-4 months, well within the period of the monsoon rainfall

Rice can be transplanted or direct seeded (or broadcast)

Transplanted rice gives a higher yield, and a somewhat better control of the cultivation cycle (relative to the rainfall),

because the transplanting can be postponed by some weeks, if need be.

In return, the maturation period is 5-7 days longer than for direct seeded rice - and the risk of faulty weather is

related to the length of the cultivation period.

Transplanting is labour-intensive (around 10 person-days per hectare, or more)

3

Regarding the water supply, there is a broad scale between fully irrigated and fully rainfed

crops. In most cases, irrigated crops are partly rainfed. Supplementary irrigation (for example

during the onset of the wet season) can be important for orderly cultivation, whereby it can

represent a high added value per m3 of water used.

Irrigation can comprise a variety of operations, alone or in a combination:

• Storage of water in a reservoir;

• pumping (large-scale or small-scale) (from a river, lake, canal or reservoir);

• diversion of water from a river, by a control structure (weir), into a network of canals;

• retention of surface runoff (towards the end of the wet season), by dams, canals and

gates; and

• retention of return flows from upstream paddy fields, by canals and gates.

Groundwater irrigation is hardly economically feasible for paddy cultivation, due to high

operation costs and low value produced. To some extent, however, the same can be said about

surface water irrigation, unless weather conditions and the topography are favourable.

Operation of irrigation schemes can be complex, and sometimes very much so. Good operation

is supported by thorough professional insight, access to historical data, real-time data and

reliable forecasts.

Figure 1: Example of a diversion scheme: The Chiang Rai Weir, North Thailand 10

10 MRC and OEPP (Oct 2000)

4

Figure 2: Example of a retention scheme, typical for the flood plains of Cambodia 11

11 Strongly simplified diagramme, illustrating the 800 ha Chruy Chek irrigation scheme, Trean commune,

Kompong Siem district, Kampong Cham province, Cambodia (visited in May and December 2004)

End of the dry season

(April-May)

Peak of the flood season

(September) - the entire

active flood plain is flooded

One crop of paddy is

cultivated from

October/November to

January/March

Higher ground

Active floodplain

(dry at this time of year)

Dam

Mekong

river

5

Typical processing operations are shown in Figure 3. After an allocation (of around 1 percent)

for seeds, post-harvest losses (including drying) and milling, 1 kg paddy leaves 0.5 - 0.6 kg

milled rice. (So it is important to distinguish between paddy and milled rice!) An example is

shown in Table 3 below.

Figure 3: Rice processing

Table 3: Rice production and food balance (example, Cambodia 2000-2001) 12

Total paddy production 4,026,000 t 100 percent

Seed and post-harvest losses 684,000 t 17 percent

Balance: Paddy available 3,342,000 t 83 percent

Milled rice available 2,072,000 t 51 percent

Population, persons 13,100,000 persons

Total rice requirement, at 151 kg/person/year 1,981,000 t

Surplus rice production 91,000 t

12 CNMC-BDP (Aug 2003)

Threshing, winnowing

Brown rice

Husk (20-30 percent)

Milling

White (or milled) rice (whole and broken)

Seeds, post-harvest losses

Bran, polish (around 10 percent)

Harvesting

Paddy

6

3 Water utilization

Water balance

A basic water balance is shown below for paddy irrigation based on surface water.

Figure 4: Water balance for paddy cultivation

Due to the losses, the irrigation demand is much higher than the crop water requirement. It is

seen, however, that much of the water that is 'lost' goes to groundwater recharge or can be used

for other purposes downstream.

Both the crop water requirement and the rainfall depend on the location. The crop water

requirement varies during the cultivation period, and the rainfall varies with an annual cycle.

Therefore, the water balance is made on a monthly or daily basis for the entire cultivation

period. A suitable basic unit is mm/day.

The crop water requirement can be determined by experiments at agricultural field stations, or it

can be calculated from a reference evapotranspiration by a method available on FAO's website.

For over-all water resources management purposes it is convenient to know the irrigation

demand for an entire crop, expressed in mm/crop or m3/crop/ha. Obviously, this value depends

on the time, place and duration of the actual cultivation period, and it will highly depend on how

much of the crop requirement that is served by irrigation and how much by rainfall.

Water lost in the canals

(or conveyance losses)

(evaporation, seepage, etc).

Irrigation demand (or withdrawal demand):

Water withdrawn for irrigation from a river or a reservoir

Rainfall

Crop water requirement: The water needed for the crop to grow

Water supplied to the field

Water lost in the field

(or field application losses)

Return flows from the field

(can be used downstream)

7

Water efficiencies

The scheme efficiency is the over-all ratio between the water needed by the crop and the water

that needs to be withdrawn for irrigated cultivation 13. Scheme efficiencies are often low in

places where water is by tradition abundantly available.

The conveyance efficiency (the extent to which the water reaches its destination) depends on

whether the canal is lined, and on the canal length and soil type. Also, the state of maintenance

is important.

The field application efficiency for irrigated paddy cultivation depends on the system layout, the

management of the system, and the skills and coordination between the farmers.

Table 4: Examples of efficiencies

Conveyance efficiency 14,

lined canals

earthen canals Ec

95

60-90

%

%

Field application efficiency, paddy 15 Ea 60-65 %

Scheme (or over-all) efficiency (paddy) 16 Ec * Ea 30 %

Return flow (paddy) (in % of irrigation demand) 17 30 %

Please note that these figures are examples only!

Irrigation demand and crop requirement

In an example from Thailand, the crop requirement was determined to 3.6 and 5.0 mm/day for

rainfed and irrigated rice, respectively 18. Assuming a 120 days cultivation period, this equals

4,300 - 6,100 m3/crop/ha.

13 The efficiency is the part of the water that is used for its intended purpose. If a scheme efficiency is 30 % it

means that 30 % of the water is used by the crops, while 70 % is lost on the way to the crops or are

subsequently released as return flows

14 Drainage and Irrigation Department, Penang, Malaysia (website read October 2004):

http://agrolink.moa.my/did/didpenang/pengairan/irr_eff.htm

15 (same)

16 Nesbitt (July 2003) Table 11, quoting FAOSTAT data for Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Viet Nam. The

same value was used in MRC and OEPP (Oct 2000)

17 MRC and OEPP (Oct 2000)

18 Panya Polsan et. al (July 2004)

8

Table 5: Consumptive water use in traditional (wet) rice systems

Land preparation 150 - 250 mm/crop Restoring soil moisture,

ploughing and puddling

Evapotranspiration 500 - 1200

4 - 10

mm/crop

mm/day

Crop requirement

Seepage and percolation 200 -700

2 - 6

mm/crop

mm/day

Maintaining water pounding

Mid-season drainage 50 - 100 mm/crop Refilling after drainage

Total

Average over a 120 days

cultivation period

900 - 2250

7.5 - 20

mm/crop

mm/day

Total water utilization

from rainfall + irrigation,

excluding return flows

Source: FAO (2004a)

In comparison, the following figures are from Royal Irrigation Department in Thailand 19:

Crop requirement, dry season rice: 6-7 mm/day

Percolation (depending on soil type): 1-3 mm/day

Total (crop requirement + percolation): 8-10 mm/day

According to the figures in Table 6 (which are more or less typical for Southeast Asia), it is

required to withdraw around 3.3 m3 of water for each m3 needed by the crops - in the absence

of rainfall:

Table 6: Irrigation demand and crop water requirement

Irrigation demand (withdrawal from river or reservoir): 100 percent

Available to serve the crop water requirement: 30 percent

Return flows: 30 percent

Various losses: 40 percent

Water used per kg rice

As shown by the following examples, it requires a lot of water to produce rice - in particular

where the traditional cultivation systems are based on abundance of water. As a rule of thumb, it

requires 5 m3 of water to produce 1 kg of rice.

For a given crop at a given time and place, the yield depends on many factors, including the

continuous water supply, the crop variety, weed management, and the use of fertilizer. Within

limits, each kilogram of nitrogen fertilizer can produce 10–15 kg more rice 20. Assume a specific

crop water requirement of (for example) around 4 m3/kg paddy (Table 7). If so, 1 kg of fertilizer

can replace 40-60 m3 of water.

19 Osot Charnvej (Oct 1999)

20 Guerra, Bhuiyan, Tuong and Barker (1998)

9

In the Mekong Delta, the irrigation demand (for fully irrigated paddy) has

been reported at 1 l/s/ha21 or 8.6 mm/day.

The yield of (dry season) rice is 5.0 t/ha 22. Assuming a 120 days cultivation

period, this is 2.1 m3 of water per kg dry season paddy rice.

Assuming post-harvest losses of 10 percent and a milling rate of 65 percent,

this becomes 3.5 m3 of water per kg milled rice.

In Northeast Thailand, the irrigation demand (for fully irrigated paddy) has

been reported at 12,000 m3/ha/crop 23 (or 1,200 mm/crop or 10 mm/day).

The yield of (dry season) rice is 3.3 t/ha24. This is 3.6 m3 of water per kg dry

season paddy rice.

Assuming post-harvest losses of 10 percent and a milling rate of 65 percent,

this becomes 6.2 m3 of water per kg milled rice.

Table7: Specific crop water requirements

(Example, Thailand 1999) 25

Banana 970 m3/ton

Groundnut 1880 m3/ton

Maize 780 m3/ton

Soybean 3050 m3/ton

Sugarcane 200 m3/ton

Watermelon 270 m3/ton

Onion (dry) 490 m3/ton

Rice 4050 m3/ton

Note: Various irrigation losses not included

Post-harvest losses are not included

Record yields - 'China cultivates record high-yield super rice'

Chinese agronomists have cultivated a new species of 'super rice,' the Super Rice II YOU 28, with

average yield reaching a record high of 18,400 kilograms per hectare.

The figure broke the records set in 2004 of 18,300 kilograms per hectare, setting a new world record,

said Shi Changjun, leader of the super rice acceptance test.

Experts from the China Rice Research Institute, Yunnan Agricultural University and the Yunnan

Provincial Academy of Agriculture conducted on-the-spot acceptance check over harvest of the super

rice.

The new species of high-yield hybrid rice was sown in March, planted in May and harvested on

September 10 in Taoyuan Village, Yongsheng County of south China's Yunnan Province, with fertility

period lasting 192 days.

Source: Xinhua, quoting People's Daily Online, September 12, 2005

21 Nesbitt (July 2003) p. 33

22 MRC-BDP (Nov 2002) p. 18, 1999 data from Viet Nam General Statistical Office

23 Nesbitt (July 2003) p. 33

24 MRC-BDP (Nov 2002) p. 17, 2001 data from Thailand National Statistics Office

25 Hoekstra and Hung (2002), Appendix III, pp. 3, 6, 9, 12

10

Demand satisfaction

Demand satisfaction is a measure to illustrate the amount of water needed for serving the full

demand.

The following figure is an example from Kok River Basin in North Thailand. The wet season is

from May to October, with the highest rainfall in July and August. Surprisingly, at the first

glance, the month with the lowest demand satisfaction is July, in the middle of the wet season

(where water is required for land preparation for the main rice crop, which will be harvested in

November).

In this area, the irrigation demand is higher in the wet season than in the dry season, because the

crop intensity is low in the dry season - the farmers cultivate their land in harmony with the

water availability. When asked, they will reply that they don't need irrigation water in the dry

season, because they don't cultivate their fields in that part of the year.

Figure 5: Demand satisfaction (example from Kok River Basin, North Thailand) 26

Water quality

Like other water-dependent production systems, paddy cultivation requires a certain quality

standard of the consumed water on the one hand, and represents a certain environmental

pressure on the other.

Production systems based on paddy cultivation in combination with paddy field fisheries can be

economically attractive - the income from the fish can exceed the income from the cultivation -

but require water that is uncontaminated to a standard where fish can survive.

Example from Thailand (2003 figures) 27

Import of fertilizers: 3,840,000 tonnes/year

Import of pesticides: 50,331 tonnes /year

(These figures relate to the entire agricultural sector of Thailand, which

comprises a variety of crops other than rice)

26 MRC and OEPP (Oct 2000)

27 Thailand National Economic and Social Development Board, quoted in Bangkok Post 14 November 2004, p.

3

70

80

90

100

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan

PerCent

0

10

20

30

Abstraction (m3/s)

Satisfaction

Abstraction

11

If the irrigation tailwater carry 'hard' pollutants (like bio-accumulating and slowly decaying

pesticide residuals), the consequences to the fisheries sector and the public health can be severe.

Paddy cultivation in itself is robust to pesticide residues in the irrigation water, but is sensitive

to salinity, which is a problem in downstream areas of the river basin that are exposed to sea

water intrusion.

12

4 Water resources management

General

A fruitful distinction can be made between

• basin level management, for a river basin or sub-basin; and

• scheme level management (or system level management), for a single irrigation scheme.

These two levels differ widely in terms of agenda, management options, and needs of

knowledge and data.

Also, the water balances are different at the two levels. At the basin level, percolation losses and

return flows at the scheme level are (typically) not 'losses' but rather 're-allocations'.

• The third level of management, the farm level, is not covered by this lecture note.

Basin level management

The purpose of water resources management at the basin level is to establish and maintain some

harmony between (1) the over-all water availability and (2) the potential demand of water.

This exercise must be carried out in time and space. That there is enough water on the average is

of little practical interest. In the Lower Mekong Basin, the average water availability is 19

m3/person/day, or 7,100 m3/person/year 28, but still, there are severe seasonal water shortages -

and a strong need of water resources management.

For a given area, the availability is largely determined by the rainfall (and by large-scale storage

facilities), while the demand is determined by the crops, the cultivation routines, and the applied

technology. The availability and the demand are linked by prevailing, traditional production

system modalities, but are otherwise largely unrelated.

The irrigation demand may be the largest item in the budget in terms of volume, but not in terms

of significance. The domestic demand is much smaller in terms of volume, but much higher in

terms of significance. In terms of value generated, paddy irrigation comes low on a long list of

industrial and agricultural water uses.

A balance must be maintained between consumptive (or 'off-stream') water uses and nonconsumptive

(or 'in-stream' water uses). The former comprise domestic, industrial and

agricultural demands. The latter represent the needs of the fisheries and navigation sectors, as

well as the ecological demand of water (to maintain a desired state of aquatic and floodplain

ecosystems and other wetlands). Hydropower reservoirs fall somewhat in between, but are

important, as they can re-distribute the water availability over the year.

In some rivers, for example the Mekong, the lower parts are only slightly elevated above sea

level, and with no control structures to keep the saline sea water out. If so, a certain minimum

flow must be maintained to prevent saline intrusion.

28 MRC (July 2003)

13

For planning purposes and feasibility analyses, knowledge is required about the over-all,

'reliable' water availability (which can for example be 'the water available in 4 out of 5 years').

At the basin level, the return flows are not really losses - quite often, they can be used further

downstream in the basin, at a later time. Similarly, percolation is regarded as groundwater

recharge, rather than a loss. Still, these flows must be taken into account, since they need to be

removed from the river or the reservoir in the first place.

Figure 6: Example of water management infrastructure involving reservoirs and diversions.

Kok River Basin, North Thailand 29 30

29 MRC and OEPP (Oct 2000)

30 1 rai = 1600 m2

14

Figure 7: Satellite view of Tonle Sap (Cambodia) and the Mekong Delta

The Vietnamese part of the Mekong Delta produces 50% of the

national rice yield and 90% of the exported value 31.

48 % of the area is irrigated. The hydraulic infrastructure is

comprehensive and complex, providing irrigation water, flood

protection, and salinity control.

The low-lying Delta is exposed to intrusion of saline sea water,

and a certain minimum flow is required to maintain the

freshwater regime 32. The required minimum flow is not much

less than the annual monthly minimum flow of around 1,630

m3/s (or 2.1 l/s/km2 catchment area) 33.

Knowledge about the water availability is much more accessible and much more accurate than

knowledge about the future, potential demand, which can vary within a broad range, depending

on crops and cultivation techniques.

Water management at the basin level is not always based on win-win-solutions. Development

initiatives that benefit some people in some areas can have adverse consequences to other

people living in adjacent areas. Many irrigation schemes with an undisputed over-all positive

'bottom line' can deprive some people of land and/or water.

Scheme level management

The purpose of scheme level management is to serve the crop water requirement.

Scheme level management requires

• real-time information about storage volumes and/or river stages and/or flow rates;

• good forecasts of rainfall and river stage over as long a period of time as possible;

• knowledge about normal rainfall and stage, and typical variation intervals, as a function

of time; and

• knowledge about optimal and critical crop requirements.

In some places, scheme level management can also comprise operational protection against

floods, or operational protection against salt water intrusion, by means of control gates or flow

regulation.

An important feature of scheme level management is the coordination among the water users.

This must take place either in a close dialogue, or by the water users themselves (depending on

31 Data from 2000, VNMC (May 2003), p. 8

32 Nedeco (Feb 1993)

33 January 1964 - May 1974, data published in the Lower Mekong Hydrologic Yearbooks

15

the complexity of the scheme, its size, and other circumstances). In any case, the skills of the

water users, and the collaboration between them, are crucial to successful management.

Criteria for successful scheme level management are :

1 Adequate basic technical and financial feasibility ('sustainability') of the enterprise. A

scheme must be practical and profitable, otherwise it will fail - no matter how well it is

managed;

2 roles understood and accepted by everyone involved. This requires in turn (i) that the

roles are well-defined and transparent, and (ii) that the enterprise is supported by the

stakeholders;

3 an adequate information flow - managerial, technical and financial - between the

involved parties, so that good and timely decisions can be made; and

4 adequate managerial skills available as required with each decision-making body. This

can be supported (i) by training; and (ii) by avoiding overly complicated management

routines.

As a matter of curiosity, it can be noted that paddy cultivation is seldom financially sustainable,

if depreciation of construction costs are taken into account, due to the marginal added value.

A life-long education process of everybody involved can highly support a sustainable scheme

level management.

16

5 The development agenda

Technological aspects

Scientific research related to rice cultivation is carried out by International Rice Research

Institute (IRRI), International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and many other

international and national research centres and programmes. FAO maintains a major knowledge

base and develops tools for agricultural management and related water resources management.

Please refer to the Internet for (much) more information.

Current research comprises issues such as 34

• higher yield (tons per ha)

• increased water efficiency (tons per m3)

• increased nutrient efficiency (tons per ton fertilizer used)

• improved drought tolerance

• integrated pest management

Golden rice 35

Recent breakthroughs in scientific technology have made it possible to enhance the nutritional value of

rice through modifying the genetic code.

The best-known example of this technology is 'golden rice', which contains carotenoids (precursors to

vitamin A) from daffodil genes.

Yield gaps 36

The yield gap is the (often significant) difference between an actual and a potential yield. A distinction

can be made between (1) the gap between the potential theoretical yield and the experiment station

yield; (2) the gap between the experiment station yield and the potential farm yield; and (3) the gap

between the potential and the actual farm yield.

Factors causing yield gaps include

1. Biophysical: climate/weather, soils, water, pest pressure, weeds.

2. Technical/management: tillage, variety/seed selection, water, nutrients, weeds, pests, and postharvest

management.

3. Socio-economic: socio-economic status, farmer’s traditions and knowledge, family size, household

income/expenses/investment.

4. Institutional/policy: government policy, rice prices, credit, input supply, land tenure, market,

research, development, extension.

5. Technology transfer and linkages: the competence and facilities of extension staff; integration

among research, development and extension; farmers’ resistance to new technology; knowledge

and skills; weak linkages among public, private and non-governmental extension staffs.

34 Cantrell and Hettel (2004)

35 FAO (2003b)

36 FAO (2003c)

17

Social and economic aspects

In Southeast Asia, paddy cultivation is of decisive importance in terms of employment and food

security. It is not a very profitable livelihood, however:

• In NE Thailand (1996/97), the net profit of paddy cultivation was estimated from minus

49 to plus 21 USD/ha/crop for irrigated HYV rice in the wet and dry season,

respectively, and at minus 44 USD/ha/crop for the traditional wet season rainfed local

variety rice (family labour valued at 2.5 USD/day). 37

• In Cambodia, the net profit of paddy cultivation was estimated at 2 USD/ha/crop for

rainfed wet season rice and 2 USD/ha/crop for irrigated dry season rice (family labour

valued at 1 USD/day). 38

Example from Thailand 39

The average income of people in the farm sector (2002) was two times lower than in non-farm sectors,

and 3.8 times lower than the income of skilled labour workers. Most of the 6.2 million people living

below the poverty line were in the farm sector.

Slow progress [towards sustainable agriculture] was attributed to lack of land ownership documents,

lack of water, lack of labour, lack of investment, and debt.

Farmers themselves also lacked the 'inspiration', patience and diligence to succeed.

A farmer who wants to shift from paddy to other crops faces various obstacles, including the

following:

• Whether the soil is suited for other crops;

• new needs of capital, technology and knowledge (and hereby, perhaps, new dependencies

on suppliers);

• whether the alternative crops require more fertilizer and more pesticides (and hereby

additional expenses, occupational safety risks, and pollution that can impede local

fisheries and cause other harm);

• unfamiliar (and possibly risky) distribution and marketing systems (and hereby, perhaps,

new dependencies on buyers); and

• social risks in general - illness in the family, natural disasters - and how to cover them.

Between them, these obstacles can point towards contract farming, with its variety of pros and

cons. Also, the obstacles can point towards land ownership concentration.

37 Harry Nesbitt (July 2003)

38 MAFF (September 2002)

39 Thailand National Economic and Social Development Board, quoted in Bangkok Post 14 November 2004, p.

3

18

Management aspects

At the basin level, water-related management can be supported by developments towards:

• Supportive water allocation within the basin, and, possibly, among basins (subject to

careful analysis of benefits and side effects);

• coordinated operational flow management of retention, release, and diversion of water,

using existing or new infrastructure;

• coordinated, basin-level flood and drought preparedness, including forecast services and

contingency planning;

• coordinated hydropower development in a multi-disciplinary perspective (subject to

careful analysis of benefits and side effects);

• salinity control measures (that can reduce the required minimum flow while protecting

downstream irrigation systems and ecosystems) (subject to careful analysis of benefits

and side effects);

• coordinated, basin-level groundwater management (mapping, protection, regulation,

monitoring) (to prevent contamination and assure prudent utilization);

• coordinated, basin-level morphological management (to protect infrastructure, waterways

and ecosystems);

• awareness of the proper use of fertilizers and pesticides, with supportive regulation;

• coordinated management of wetlands and headwater areas;

• support in many ways to a partial crop diversification, combining paddy with other crops

(and/or livestock and/or fish cultivation) (for example learning from experience achieved

in Thailand, Viet Nam and elsewhere);

• support in many ways to enhancing the water efficiency and the economic efficiency of

the primary production (involving extension services and bridging institutions);

• support in many ways to enhancing the added value of the primary production (within

post-processing, distribution and marketing); and

• networking and knowledge-sharing among river basin organizations.

At the scheme level, water-related management of paddy cultivation can be supported by

development comprising:

• Making operational data and information readily available;

• scheme-level flood and drought preparedness and contingency planning;

• networking and knowledge-sharing between scheme operators and water users;

• credit facilities for investment and disaster mitigation; and

• awareness of technological opportunities within crops, cultivation routines, water

management and soil management.

The over-all water efficiency and the economic efficiency of water utilization can be enhanced

by general measures such as

• Supportive land ownership structure;

19

• de-centralization of ownership and decision-making, as practical from case to case

(considering the size of the scheme; its technological complexity; water sharing with

other schemes; and various other site-specific circumstances);

• scientific research, international networking, bridging institutions and extension services;

• broad capacity-building; and

• holistic development of farming, post-processing, distribution and marketing (for

example learning from experience achieved in Thailand and elsewhere).

Social risk management is an important companion to water management. Without one, the

other can fail, or initial achievements can eventually become undermined. This can happen if

intended beneficiaries of an irrigation development lose their land due to floods, drought, crop

or livestock diseases, illness in the family, market failure, or other social shocks.

CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research)

Three CGIAR research centers focus on rice research: (i) The International Rice Research Institute

(IRRI) in the Philippines; (ii) the West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA) in Cote d'Ivoire;

and (iii) the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Colombia.

IRRI operates an award winning website dedicated to rice called the Rice Web (http://www.riceweb.org).

This is a compendium of facts and figures from the world of rice.

The three research centers collaborate to improve yield potential , to develop hybrid rice for the tropics,

to improve nitrogen use efficiency in rainfed systems, and to combat pests, diseases, and weeds.

Source: http://www.cgiar.org/impact/research/rice.html

20

References and literature

Cantrell, Ronald P. and Gene P. Hettel (2004): New challenges and technological opportunties for ricebased

production systems for food security and poverty alleviation in Asia and the Pacific. FAO

Rice Conference, Rome, Italy, February 2004

CNMC-BDP (Aug 2003): Basin Development Plan Programme: Integrated water resources management

in Cambodia, national sector review. Cambodia National Mekong Committee, Phnom Penh

Osot Charnvej (October 1999): Irrigation water saving for rice production. Symposium on irrigation

water saving for paddy rice, People's Republic of China

FAO (2004a): Rice and water - a long and diversified story. Fact sheet no. 1, http://www.rice2004.org

FAO (2004b): Rice and human nutrition. Fact sheet no. 3, http://www.rice2004.org

FAO (2004c): Rice and narrowing the yield gap. Fact sheet no. 5, http://www.rice2004.org

FAO (2004c): Rice post-harvest system - an efficient approach. Fact sheet no. 8, http://www.rice2004.org

L. C. Guerra, S. I. Bhuiyan, T. P. Tuong, and R. Barker (1998): Producing more rice with less water from

irrigated systems. SWIM paper 5, IWMI, Colombo

A. Y. Hoekstra and P. Q. Hung (Sept 2002): Virtual water trade - a quantification of virtual water flows

between nations in relation to international crop trade. Value of Water Research Report Series

no. 11, IHE, Delft, The Netherlands

Auke Koopmans and Jaap Koppejan (January 1997): Agricultural and forest residues - generation,

utilization and availability. Paper presented at the Regional Consultation on Modern

Applications of Biomass Energy, 6-10 January 1997, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

MAFF (September 2002): Agriculture sector development program, draft final report. Submitted by

Overseas Project Corporation of Victoria Ltd. to Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery,

funded by ADB (TA 3695-CAM). Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, Cambodia

David Molden, Upali Amarasinghe; and Intizar Hussain (2001): Water for rural development. Working

paper 32, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Sri Lanka.

MOWRAM and CNMC (June 2003): Irrigated agriculture. National sector review prepared by Ministry

of Water Resources and Meteorology in association with Cambodia National Mekong

Committee

MRC (July 2003): State of the Basin Report. Mekong River Commission, Phnom Penh

MRC-BDP (November 2002). Regional sector overview, agriculture and irrigation. Prepared by Mekong

River Commission Secretariat, Phnom Penh, Cambodia November 2002

MRC and OEPP (Oct 2000): Kok River Basin, Pilot Study for Water Resources and Environment

Management. Final Report. Office of Environmental Policy and Planning, Thailand, and

Mekong River Commission

Nedeco (February 1993): Mekong Delta Master Plan, thematic studies on environmental impacts, volume

4: Indicative assessment of long-term impacts of salinity intrusion and control. Government of

Viet Nam / State Planning Committee, World Bank, Mekong Secretariat, and UNDP

Harry Nesbitt (July 2003): Water used for agriculture in the Lower Mekong Basin. Report prepared for

Mekong River Commission, Basin Development Plan

Panya Polsan, Masatoshi Aoki and Sa-Nguan Patamatamkul (July 2004): Comparative actual water

consumption of irrigated and rainfed paddy rice field using Bower ratio method. 2nd APHW

Conference, Singapore

E. B. Rice (April 1997): Paddy irrigation and water management in Southeast Asia. A World Bank

Operations Evaluation Study

Claudia Ringler (May 2001): Optimal water allocation in the Mekong River Basin. ZEF, Bonn

Mark W. Rosegrant, Ximing Cai and Sarah A. Cline (2002): World water and food to 2025: Dealing with

scarcity. IFPRI, Washington

Nanette Levanius Schouw and Jens Chr. Tjell (2003): Cadmium flows in recycling waste to agriculture in

Thailand. Journal of Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies Vol. 2, No. 2

VNMC (May 2003): National sector overviews. Viet Nam National Mekong Committee, Hanoi

21

Appendix A: Statistics

Top producers (2003/04 data from US Department of Agriculture)

1 China 118,000,000 t

2 India 89,000,000 t

3 Indonesia 33,300,000 t

4 Bangladesh 26,000,000 t

5 Vietnam 21,000,000 t

6 Thailand 17,800,000 t

7 Burma 10,440,000 t

8 Philippines 8,500,000 t

9 Brazil 7,300,000 t

10 Japan 7,100,000 t

Top producers per capita (2003/04 data from US Department of Agriculture)

1 Thailand 277 kg/person

2 Vietnam 257 kg/person

3 Burma 246 kg/person

4 Bangladesh 188 kg/person

5 Indonesia 142 kg/person

6 Philippines 100 kg/person

7 South Korea 93 kg/person

8 China 92 kg/person

9 India 85 kg/person

10 Japan 56 kg/person

Top exporters (2003/04 data from US Department of Agriculture)

1 Thailand 8,000,000 t

2 Vietnam 4,000,000 t

3 India 3,000,000 t

4 United States 2,900,000 t

5 China 2,500,000 t

6 Pakistan 1,600,000 t

7 Uruguay 750,000 t

8 Egypt 700,000 t

9 Burma 500,000 t

22

Appendix B: Economy of paddy farming (example)

The farmers income and expenses Adverse Favourable

USD/ha/crop USD/ha/crop

(1) Sale of 3-5 t/ha/crop at 350-400 riel/kg paddy (0.09-0.10 USD/kg) 262.50 500.00

(2) Seeds, 20-40 kg/ha/crop at 0.2 USD/kg 4.00 8.00

(3) External labour, planting, 10 persons for 1 day/ha

at 4500 riel/person/day

11.25 11.25

(4) External labour, harvesting, 5 persons for 1 day/ha

at 4500 riel/person/day

5.63 5.63

(5) Fertiliser, 100-300 kg/ha/crop at 0.4 USD/kg 40.00 120.00

(6) Pesticides, 3 times per crop, total 4 USD/ha/crop 4.00 4.00

(7) Water fee, 50 kg paddy/ha/crop 4.38 5.00

(8) Balance before own labour = (1)-(2)-(3)-(4)-(5)-(6)-(7) 193.25 346.13

(9) Own labour, 120 days/crop at 1 USD/day for 1-2 ha 120.00 60.00

(10) Balance after own labour = (8) - (9) 73.25 286.13

Additional costs for groundwater irrigation by diesel pumps

(11) Depreciation of well & pump, 500 USD over 10 crops for 3-4 ha 16.67 12.50

(12) Diesel, 90 days at 10 l/day at 0.5 USD/l for 3-4 ha 150.00 112.50

(13) Water fee saved = - (7) -4.38 -5.00

(14) Total additional costs = (11) + (12) + (13) 162.29 120.00

(15) Balance after own labour and irrigation costs = (10) - (14) -89.04 166.13

Notes:

1 USD = 4000 riel

Data: 7 March Irrigation Scheme, Kampong Cham Province, Cambodia (October 2004)

This budget is made in the farmer's perspective, selling unmilled paddy at the farmgate

(and with site-specific weather, soil conditions, crop varieties and cultivation routines)

To arrive at a 'true' economic budget, value generated downstream must be added, and price regulation

(subsidies and taxes) removed

The 'favourable' budget assumes high yield and high use of fertiliser

The 'adverse' budget assumes low yield and low use of fertiliser

Typical farm size in this area is 1 ha (but some are several times bigger)

1 kg rice (ordinary quality) cost 1400-1600 riel (0.35 - 0.40 USD) in the markets in Phnom Penh (October

2004)

Please refer to MAFF (September 2002) for an in-depth analysis of the economy of paddy farming in

Cambodia

23

Appendix C: The System for Rice Intensification (SRI) 40

The SRI methodology was developed in the early 1980s by a Jesuit priest, Farther Henri de Laulanié, who

came to Madagascar from France in 1961 and spent the next (and last) 34 years of his life working with

farmers to improve their agricultural systems.

As compared with traditional paddy cultivation systems, SRI can potentially provide a much higher yield

while saving around 50 percent of water, both with traditional and new rice varieties, but with a higher

input of labour. SRI has been implemented or tried in many countries, from case to case with positive,

inconclusive or negative results.

SRI involves management of:

Rice plants: Seedlings are transplanted:

very young - usually just 8-12 days old, with just two small leaves

carefully and quickly to have minimum trauma to the roots

singly, only one per hill instead of 3-4 together to avoid root competition

widely spaced to encourage greater root and canopy growth

in a square grid pattern, 25x25 cm or wider - 30x30 cm or 40x40 cm, even up to 50x50 cm with

the best quality soil

Soil: This is kept moist but well-drained and aerated, with good structure and enough organic matter to

support increased biological activity. The quality and health of the soil is the key to best production.

Water: Only a minimum of water is applied during the vegetative growth period, and then only a thin

layer of water is maintained on the field during the flowering and grain filling stage. Alternatively, to save

labour time, some farmers flood and drain (dry) their fields in 3-5 day cycles with good results. Best

water management practices depend on soil type, labour availability and other factors, so farmers should

experiment on how best to apply the principle of having moist but well-drained soil while thier rice plants

are growing.

Nutrients: Soil nutrient supplies should be augmented, preferably with compost, made from any available

biomass. Better quality compost such as with manure can give additional yield advantages. Chemical

fertilizer can be used and gives better results than with no nutrient amendments, but it contributes less to

good soil structure and active microbial communities in the rhizosphere than does organic matter. At least

initially, nutrient amendments may not be necessary to achieve higher yields with the other SRI practices,

but it is desirable to build up soil fertility over time. Rice-root exudation, greater with SRI, enhances soil

fertility.

Weeds: Since weeds become a problem in fields that are not kept flooded, weeding is necessary at least

once or twice, starting 10-12 days after transplanting, and preferably 3 or 4 times before the canopy

closes. Using a rotary hoe -- a simple, inexpensive, mechanical push-weeder has the advantage of aerating

the soil at the same time that weeds are eliminated. (They are left in the soil to decompose so their

nutrients are not lost.) Additional weedings beyond two increase yield more than enough under most

conditions to justify the added labour costs.

40 Source: The SRI section of Cornell Universty's website: http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/index.html

24

Appendix D 41:

Means for saving water and increasing the productivity of water

Increasing the productivity per unit of water consumed

• Changing crop varieties to new crop varieties that can provide increased yields for each unit of

water consumed, or the same yields with fewer units of water consumed.

• Crop substitution by switching from high- to less-water-consuming crops, or switching to crops

with higher economic or physical productivity per unit of water consumed.

• Deficit, supplemental, or precision irrigation. With sufficient water control, higher productivity

can be achieved using irrigation strategies that increase the returns per unit of water consumed.

• Improved water management to provide better timing of supplies to reduce stress at critical crop

growth stages leading to increased yields or by increasing water supply reliability so that farmers

invest more in other agricultural inputs leading to higher output per unit of water.

• Optimizing non-water inputs. In association with irrigation strategies that increase the yield per

unit of water consumed, agronomic practices such as land preparation and fertilization can

increase the return per unit of water.

Reducing non-beneficial depletion

• Lessening of non-beneficial evaporation - by reducing:

* evaporation from water applied to irrigated fields through specific irrigation technologies

such as drip irrigation, or agronomic practices such as mulching, or changing crop planting

dates to match periods of less-evaporative demand.

* evaporation from fallow land, decreasing the area of free water surfaces, decreasing non- or

less-beneficial vegetation and controlling weeds.

• Reducing water flows to sinks - by interventions that reduce irrecoverable deep percolation and

surface runoff.

• Minimizing salinization of return flows - by minimizing flows through saline soils or through

saline groundwater to reduce contamination of recoverable irrigation return flows.

• Shunting polluted water to sinks - to avoid the need to dilute with freshwater, saline or otherwise

polluted water should be shunted directly to sinks.

• Reusing return flows.

Reallocating water among uses

• Reallocating water from lower- to higher-value uses. Reallocation will generally not result in any

direct water savings, but it can dramatically increase the economic productivity of water. Because

downstream commitments may change, reallocation of water can have serious legal, equity and

other social considerations that must be addressed.

Tapping uncommitted outflows

• Improving management of existing facilities to obtain more beneficial use from existing water

supplies. A number of policy, design, management and institutional interventions may allow for an

expansion of irrigated area, increased cropping intensity or increased yields within the service

areas. Possible interventions are reducing delivery requirements by improved application

efficiency, water pricing, and improved allocation and distribution practices.

* Reusing return flows through gravity and pump diversions to increase irrigated area.

* Adding storage facilities so that more water is available for release during drier periods.

Storage takes many forms including reservoir impoundments, groundwater aquifers, small

tanks and ponds on farmers' fields.

41 Entire Appendix is quoted from Molden, Amarasinghe and Hussain (2001)

25

Appendix E 42: Advice from Royal Irrigation Department

Varieties

• Use early varietes of local, photoperiod sensitive varieties. Local and photoperiod sensitive

varieties are grouped as early variety (120 days) medium variety (150 days) and late variety (180

days)

• Use high yield varieties, the production can be doubled with the same amount of water

consumption.

Growing season

• Cultivate in the rainy season and harvest at the end of the season.

• For non photoperiod sensitive varieties (110 to 120 days) the harvesting date should be planned at

the end of rainy season in order to set the growing date.

• Cropping calendar should be planned suitable to wet and dry season.

Cultivation practice

• Good land preparation with smooth level of each field plot.

• Do not plough so deep that hard pan will be broken.

• Compact field boundary (dike) to avoid seepage loss.

Irrigation system

• Concrete lining in irrigation system.

• Construct on-farm system (extensive or intensive on-farm development work)

Water application and management

• Irrigate water according to crop water requirement

• Keep water level in paddy field about 6 cm deep

• Introduce rotation irrigation

• Stop irrigation in the tillering stage for some time. Besides, the water saving oxygen can also be

brought the soil.

• Stop irrigation 20 days before harvesting.

• Introduce water user group and water fee.

42 Entire Appendix is quoted from Osot Charnvej (October 1999)